Assignment 3 international relations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Assignment 3 international relations - Essay Example Rendition program, an effective counter-terrorism program designed by US government, has been a breakthrough taken to enforce human rights and enhance a safer-political and economic life to its people. This piece of research paper highlights the meaning, rationale and significances of rendition program. This paper presents an analysis of goals and specific objectives of the rendition program and detail how this program has become a threat to people as they are unable to identify a list of human rights that are to be protected. Rendition Program Rendition or extraordinary rendition program refers to the apprehension and extra-judicial transfer of an individual, who has been suspect of terrorism, from one country to another. Hastedt and Guerrier (2010) described the legal perspective and meaning of Rendition Program. It is a practice of handling over an individual or group to another authority. Rendition has been associated with Central Intelligence Agency’s abduction of those w ho have been suspected of being involved in terrorism and handling them over to foreign intelligence agencies where they will be held interrogative (p. 654). United States have allegedly transferred thousands of suspected terrorists to countries that are very known to use quite harsh interrogation and cross-checking, often with torturing. This is described as ‘Torture by proxy’. Concept of rendition is not very new, but it has been traced back to early 1980s when rendition was used to arrest the hijackers of the Achille Lauro, in a way that agents of country were abducting a person suspected of crimes in foreign country and by transporting him to another country (Henner, 2009, p. 407). In 1995, US President Bill Clinton authorized, by a presidential decision directive, the arresting of terrorists in foreign countries. The directive clearly stated that if US did not receive adequate cooperation from a state that harbored a terrorist whose extradition we were seeking, the US would be rightful to take appropriate measures to induce cooperation (Henner, 2009, p. 408). According to this directive, Central Intelligence Agency began detaining of individuals in foreign countries to be tortured or held indefinitely without any legal or rightful recourse. CIA began to detain such individuals in foreign countries for mere torturing and never for trialing them. The above mentioned rendition program, approved by Bill Clinton in 1995, targeted returning suspected Islamic Terrorists to foreign countries where they are demanded for criminal execution and torture as well. CIA has assured that suspects won’t be tortured, in order to be compliant with International Convention Against Torture, and the main purpose behind it, as CIA claimed, was to disrupt terrorist attacks and not to gather information from them (Hastedt and Guerrier, 2010, p. 654). US had mainly two concerns after the incident of 9/11 attack. What to do with high-ranking Al-Qaeda terrorists a nd to catch them to interrogate them are these two major concerns.

IP 5 - Macro Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

IP 5 - Macro - Term Paper Example The feasibility of any policy is essential, as it will determine the number of adjustments to be put in place to ensure maximum benefit. The World Bank applies policies based on sustainability. The advice given to new industrialized countries are based on economic growth and utilizing on the local potential. In Singapore, the balance is found between the social and economic spaces. The government polices are aimed at maintaining the balance between growth and social priorities. The steady economic growth measured based on GDP indicate the positive local models and the World Bank aims at ensuring financial and consultative aid is provided the country boast of economic stability (Page, 1994). However the local population required a sustainable model that balance between economic growth and social require are met. Social demands in this case imply the educational system and the healthcare provision. The country has been advised to focus on the educational system. The current curriculum should focus on productivity and evaluated based on quality rather than accessibility. In this case investment opportunities are introduced in the learning institution. The model is aimed at securing the future of investments and ensures continuous growth across the nation. Through education the country is a ble to plan for the future having secured the employment demand. The current educational system focuses on innovation and independent investments (Page, 1994). The educational system ensures continuous supply of labor while at the same time creating room for entrepreneurs. In Hong Kong, the focus is on the social policy is utilized to create a balance between the market demand and supply of labor. The aim is to empower local population hence reducing the rate of employment. High wages are to be triggered by the supply of skilled labor to the market. This implies increasing the local population purchasing

The origin and early expansion of Islam Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The origin and early expansion of Islam - Essay Example This beginning of the new religion as well as a civilization continued even after the death of the Prophet Muhammad; the religion spread quite readily across the world, but still Islam showed tolerance and gave space to other religions. One clear example in this regard is of the Jewish community settled in the Medina after an Islamic society was established there. The Jewish people were given the right to keep following their religious customs, and were granted cultural independence which was so lax that it also allowed them to observe Jewish religious laws; the Muslims in return gained the Jew's political loyalty towards the Muslim rulers. Later on in history as well, Jews enjoyed liberty and privileges during the Muslim rule in countries like Egypt, Turkey as well Iran. Another example of a co-existing as well as a conflicting religion (to Islam) is Christianity which enjoyed the same privileges (Esposito, 2002). The tribes in Arab region worshipped various pagan gods, and there were three major monotheistic religions in that area, Hebrew, Christianity, and a monotheism religion developed by Persians knows as Zoroastrianism. The majority of people in middle-east most specifically Arab were driven by tribal-based traditionalism, their value systems as well as various social, economics, religious and political aspects of their life were all controlled by the division of their society into tribes. Each tribe followed some separate pagan god, and had separate culture and belief-set that fueled their need for being deemed superior. Therefore each tribe competed in becoming the most prestigious and most powerful and for this purpose they invented their own superior gods and sought their favors. Aside from worshipping pagan gods the Arabs also honoured other heavenly objects as well as various plants and animals. In those times the people were worshipping idols more often therefore it is thought that even the Christians and the Arabs could start worshipping idols. Even Christianity was distorted in this area, and many additions were made in this religion by the priests and manipulated the doctrine to fit to their own requirements, that took away the religion's actual shape. Due to such deviant religious practices many un-just and wrongful practices had also taken root in this society, the rich were exploiting the poor, and the weak in the community were being driven to the ground by the mighty. The treatment of women and children was also merciless and harsh. Wars amongst the tribes were quite common and caused much destruction and were the major reason of poverty and terrible economic conditions of the region. Few elders in the tribes were given unparalleled importance and their ever order were followed, this lack of equal distribution of power lead to wrong decisions and exploitations of a major segment of society. Conclusion The year 622 A.D. marked a monumental milestone in the history of the religion of Islam. This marked the beginning of an era that changed the history as well as the geography of the whole world; the ripples of this event will be felt till the end of time. Soon the time

My father credit card Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

My father credit card - Essay Example Lastly, there is the issue of varying shades of honesty, theft, and moral values that have been violated. Firstly with respect to the fact that the father has found out that his credit card is missing, this is an important piece of the puzzle due to the fact that the student has not otherwise chosen to tell the father that he has stolen the card. This action in and of itself tells the reader a great deal about what the ultimate intent of the student was with regards to how he intended to use the card and even perhaps why it was originally stolen. However, once the card is noted as missing, the father still has no idea what has happened to his card and whether he has lost it naturally or whether someone has stolen it from him. It is at this juncture that the moral turpitude of the student (me) would come into play. Rather than merely destroying the card, disposing of it, blaming it on someone else, or placing it in a likely area that he may have lost it, I would need to take the mature responsibility to own up to the theft that I had done. Though the right choice is of course the best de cision, it is not necessarily the least painful; rather, it involves confronting the situation and handling it with a degree of courage. This choice of honesty is the hardest moral choice with regards to the situation due to the fact that other immoral and dishonest choices have previously been made; therefore making it far easier to merely continue in lying and deceit to ensure that the theft is never recognized or noted. Moreover, a supreme lack of respect has been illustrated within the given situation and will therefore require a level of apology and contriteness on the part of the student (me). Ultimately, the situation will be determined based upon the realization of what is right and even though a series of mistakes have been made, the right and moral decision

All for Love Essay Example for Free

All for Love Essay A parent-child relationship involves a lot of complexities. Basically, parents are responsible to provide for their children’s needs, whether material or immaterial. They are expected to perform duties to their children in spite of personal issues they have to deal with. Conversely, for children, there is the constant struggle to win their parents’ approval. These complexities in the parent-child relationship are illustrated in Sherman Alexie‘s, â€Å"Because My Father Always Said He was the Only Indian who Saw Jimi Hendrix Played ‘The Star-Spangled Banner’ at Woodstock† and D. H. Lawrence’s â€Å"The Rocking Horse Winner. † Analyses of the characters’ traits and motives provide a better understanding of how these complexities affect the relationship between parents and children. In addition, plot analyses help draw out a possible solution to the conflict. Told in the first person, â€Å"Because My Father Always Said He was the Only Indian who Saw Jimi Hendrix Played ‘The Star-Spangled Banner’ at Woostock† is a short story that talks about a father-son relationship. The son named Victor, serves as the narrator, who gives a picture of his father’s relationship with him and his mother by revealing his father’s character—his racial ideologies, hobbies, and behavior. In his revelation, the narrator gives a lighthearted view of the conflict zeroing on his father’s irresponsible behavior. Citing his father’s claim that he was the only Indian who watched Jimi Hendrix play the national anthem, the son establishes his father’s uniqueness and at the same time, his hippie attitude. Likewise, his father’s appearance to famous magazines as he knocks down an officer in defense of his political ideologies, illustrates the father’s aggressive and violent nature. Moreover, the accident the father suffers from while riding a motorcycle demonstrates his adventurousness. In sum, these descriptions show signs of the father’s irresponsible behavior, the wrong decisions he makes throughout his life. Particularly, the claim he makes regarding the concert of Jimi Hendrix demonstrates the tendency of the father to create and amuse himself with lies. Moreover, as Victor implies, his father is preoccupied with his own ambition and adventures, and he covers up his shortcomings by telling stories, and attributing his life-long search for meaning to his cultural origins. The father reasons out that his being an Indian affects him to behave the way he does. He uses his cultural origin to justify his weaknesses as a father, his obsession for music, and his erratic behavior. Parenting proves to be a difficult task for the father, mainly because of his confinement to his own affairs, his irresponsible nature. His attempt to establish individuality makes him unable to perform his obligations to his family. His acts of merrymaking with his friends and continuous search for adventures show his unpreparedness and incapability to fulfill his role as a husband and father. The difficulty of becoming a good parent is likewise tackled in D. H. Lawrence’s story. However, unlike the personal issues that the father deals with in Alexie’s story, the conflict is associated with the mother’s materialist disposition. Due to the extravagant life she is used to, the mother always feels the need of the family to produce more money. Even the house is personified as someone who whispers, â€Å"There should be more money. † Hence, the mother is always preoccupied with the thought of finding money, or as she tells her son, to being â€Å"lucky. † The excessive materialism of the mother causes her to feel indifferent towards her children. The narrator states that deep inside, â€Å"she knew that at the centre of her heart was a hard little place that could not feel love, no, not for anybody. † This indifference is what Marx (111) refers to as â€Å"alienation† in his â€Å"Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844. † In simple terms, Marx implies that as people’s material needs grow, the need to produce money and to work becomes greater. In this process, workers or proletarians such as the mother soon lose control of their lives and their selves, just as they lose control of their work. Although the mother in the story is not characterized as a usual worker, her materialist needs make her a victim of the materialistic society in which she belongs. Considering this, the alienation she experiences is one that dehumanizes her, and disables her to establish emotional connection with her children. Considering the mother’s attitude of living beyond their means, the story closely mirrors Veblen’s (â€Å"The Theory of the Leisure Class†) view of the consumerist world. As the author claims, the consumerist equate personal happiness with consumption and the purchase of material things. In his â€Å"Theory of the Leisure Class,† the author discusses that people waste money and resources in order to display a higher status than others. In the story, the family â€Å"lived in a pleasant house, with a garden, and they had discreet servants. † Although they cannot afford such luxury, the parents maintain a high standard of living in order to feel superior to their neighbors. Acknowledging the need to produce more money, the mother works â€Å"secretly† in town, designing dresses for women. Even this effort of the mother reflects her consumerist attitude. As Veblen views, for the consumerist, the woman’s role is limited to that of a housewife, as this would show off a mans success. In the story, the wife works secretly in order to pretend that the family has enough means support their needs. As Veblen proposes, by not allowing the wives to take outside professions, a man could show off his economic status, although in the story, these are all a facade invented by the mother. Like the father in Alexie’s story, whose individuality seems to come first before all aspects in the world, the mother possesses a selfish attitude, which considers everything alright as long as her material needs are met. This submission to material things illustrates nothing but her selfishness. According to Stebbins (82-83) â€Å"the person who has the least interest in continuing the relationship normally possesses the greater power and is most liable to resort to exploitative behavior. † In the two stories, we see the parents as those who are less interested to continue their relationship with their children. In â€Å"The Rocking-Horse Winner,† the selfishness of the mother is best reflected in her request to withdraw the full amount that Paul secretly endows her. Although the mother uses the money to provide better education to her children, these are all due to her pride, her ambition to be regarded as superior to their neighbors. Moreover, her disinterest to find out whoever bequeaths her the big sum proves her ingratitude and materialist disposition. Furthermore, her insensitivity to her son’s condition, the fact that the three collaborators, the son, the uncle, and the servant are able to continue their deals without the knowledge of the family, provides a more lucid proof of the selfish nature of the mother. As the story relates, the selfish behavior of the mother drives the son to eagerly and desperately please her. Snodgrass (191) offers Freudian analyses of Paul’s character, claiming that the son’s effort to win his mother’s affection is Oedipal in nature. However, one may note that there is no established feud between Paul and his father. In fact, not much is said about the father; therefore, this claim cannot be fully established. Nevertheless, through the selfishness of the mother, one may see why the son becomes obsessed in the betting game. Ultimately, it is the mother’s materialistic ambition that drives the son to engage in the betting habit. It is also that, which leads him later to lose his senses. It can be noted that during their conversation, when Paul inquires about luck, the mother points out, Its what causes you to have money. If youre lucky you have money. Thats why its better to be born lucky than rich. If youre rich, you may lose your money. But if youre lucky, you will always get more money. This statement makes the son realize the importance of money and luck. As the mother equates luck with having money, the son struggles to find luck in order to please his mother. As the narrator reveals, the children in the house feel the indifference in the look of their mother. Thus, Paul, imbued by a son’s inherent desire to gain approval and be loved, forces himself to be lucky. More than the competition that some critics establish between the father and the son, it is the son’s emotional needs that move him to create something to please the mother. The same need for affection and approval motivates Victor. As he illustrates the sacrifices he and his mother bear just to please his father, one gets the notion of a one-way relationship where the father is at most on the advantage. The attention Victor gives his father justifies this notion. Specifically, his effort to listen and learn his father’s music, the acquired love for Jimi Hendrix, and the mere belief that his father was the only Indian who watched Hendrix’s performance of the â€Å"Star-Spangled Banner† attest to the son’s struggle to win his father’s affection, and to keep the bond between them. The problem of winning their parents’ affection is very visible in the two stories. Although this issue may look petty for some, it is revealed to be a serious issue in the two stories, especially â€Å"The Rocking-Horse Winner. † As the story shows, this conflict is what makes Paul go insane, rocking his toy horse unceasingly until it gives him the idea of who will win the race. At first, one can imagine that the habit of the son may just be a simple game he plays, but at the end, as the mother witnesses his son rocks his toy horse like a madman in the middle of the night, one can sense the psychological damage that results from the child’s longing for his mother’s love. The behavior and illness that the son shows at the end demonstrate the psychological damage he undergoes. Particularly, as the races draw near, the child develops some anxiety to come up with a forecast of who will win the race. As he already loses in the first two races, his anxiety grows worse, realizing that he has only one chance left to win during the season. As such, the simple anxiety then grows worse into a General Anxiety Disorder (GAD), affecting his whole system, making him unable to sleep and eat, gain consciousness, or in other words, continue with his normal life. In addition to GAD, psychologists may also agree that Paul develops psychological gambling. According to Franklin (Psychology Information Online), psychological gambling is an â€Å"impulse control problem which consists in persistent maladaptive gambling that creates serious life problems for the individual. † It is different from recreational gambling in that it affects seriously the way one lives, suggesting failure to function normally as an individual. As the story portrays, Paul seemingly lose his senses as he rocks his toy horse in the middle of the night. He also shows abnormal behavior as he repeats, â€Å"Malabar,† the name of the horse that will win the final race.

Heritage Tourism On Archaeological Sites In Egypt Tourism Essay

Heritage Tourism On Archaeological Sites In Egypt Tourism Essay Egypt is located in the North- Eastern corner of Africa and South-Western Asia and is commonly known as The Motherland of the World Land of Civilizations and The Greatest Power in Human History being reputable for its 7,000-year-old record of civilization and immense wealth of knowledge (SIS, 2011). Amongst all civilizations and nations, Egypt is known to be one of the worlds oldest tourist destinations, possessing one third of the worlds ancient monuments within its country. Besides its other archaeological and cultural monuments, the discovery of the Pharaonic antiquities long time ago has added a special appeal to Egypt, therefore boosting Egypts tourism industry. However, with the booming increase in Egypts tourism, conflicts and issues starts to surface concerning the management and conservation of the ancient Egyptian archaeological sites and treasures. What defines Egypt is its massive number of archaeological sites that can be found all over the country and of course, its extraordinary architectural and heritage attractions such as the legendary Pyramids of Giza, the world-famous Valley of the Kings and the temple at Abu Simbel. These well-known and remarkable sites are the lifeblood of the countrys tourism industry where it attracts over 2 million visitors annually to Egypt (Boniface and Cooper, 2001). Despite being one of the most highly industrialized country in the Arab region, Egypts petroleum and economy is not sufficient to provide adequate amount of jobs to its population of 73 million (e.g.: Boniface and Cooper, 2001; MINTEL, 2004). It is also mentioned by Weeks and Hetherington (2006) that tourism has been a key factor in Egypts economy for about the last two centuries and over the last generation. It has become a crucial component of the economy and is now the source of 45 percent of the countrys annual foreign currency earnings. Therefore tourism in Egypt plays a critical role of support for its economy where it benefits both the government and to all levels of the society. One of the main components of the tourism industry in Egypt is heritage tourism. Heritage itself as a concept has entered on to a global stage and penetrated into the local, regional and national arena (Burnett, 2001). The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) states that heritage and culture have become an important element in almost 40 per cent of all international trips taken (Timothy and Boyd, 2003) and despite of recession, heritage tourism still continued to grow (Hanna, 1993, cited in Timothy and Boyd, 2003). Throughout the world, ancient venues and archaeological monuments have become major tourism attractions (Laws, 2011) and one such destination is Egypt where the impacts of flourishing heritage tourism on ancient archaeological sites are apparent through out the country. However, in spite of the thriving tourism industry in Egypt, conflicts and issues starts to arise that contradicts Egypts own tourism interest. In order to maximize revenue from the tourism industry, Egypt implemented the approach of opening more sites to visitors and promoting visits through advertising and high profile overseas tours of antiquities (Weeks and Hetherington, 2006). Ironically, the benefits of expanding Egypts tourism are being out weigh by the negative aspects. Lambert (2011) states that a bustling tourist industry is sadly known to be a double-edged sword. She added that, as most archaeological sites are very fragile and ancient, they were not meant to accommodate thousands of visitors on a daily basis. The overcrowding of tourists visiting, touching and stepping onto these sites, are destroying many archaeological attractions. One such incident happened in February of 1988. A chunk of limestone fell from the Egyptian Sphinx, the half lion, half man relic built by the ancient Egyptians over 4,000 years ago. Recently on January 2011, Egypts Supreme Council of Antiquities had announced plans to close the tomb of Tutankhamen to tourists by the end of the year. The tomb, which was discovered some 89 years ago, was damaged as a result of the overwhelming visits of tourist, particularly over the past three decades (http://www.redorbit.com). The mass tourism in Egypt has also impacted the Valley of the Kings, altering the physical and natural aspects of the environment. According to Gaetano Palumbo, the program director for North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia for the World Monuments Fund, a New York-based nonprofit dedicated to preserving and protecting endangered historical sites around the world: One could say that, the heritage sites in Egypt are victims of their own success. In the Valley of the Kings, Luxor, visitor numbers have almost doubled in the past 10 years, from 1.5 million to close to 3 million, with peaks of 10,000 visitors a day. This creates massive problems in visitor management. Drastic decisions may have to be taken in order to regulate visitor numbers, including temporary or permanent closures of ancient sites.   Due to poor tourism and cultural heritage management, Bindlegas (1997) states that the decay of some of the worlds most fabulous ancient relics has been happening at a shocking rate. These major archaeological and cultural heritage sites represent the origins of human civilization and provide the best evidences of the historical and cultural development of humanity (Global Heritage Fund, 2010). If measures are not taken to start preserving and conserving the ancient monuments, it will be completely destroyed within centuries. However, increasing the tourism receipts into Egypt and on the other hand, conserving these heritage sites is not as simple as it seems. Leask (2006) described that balancing the development of tourism opportunities and heritage conservation activities has been a continuous struggle for countries with tourism and cultural heritage management. The different parties involved are unable to decide on the same agreement, resulting in the lack of proper management that can benefit both the tourism and conservation of the ancient Egyptian archaeological sites and treasures. Therefore this paper aims to identify the variables that constitute and associate to the impacts of heritage tourism on archaeological sites in Egypt. AIM To assess the impacts of heritage tourism on archaeological sites in Egypt OBJECTIVES To review secondary literature about the environmental impacts of heritage tourism on archaeological sites in Egypt. To study the conflict between heritage and tourism in Egypt. To assess the management and conservation of archaeological sites in Egypt. CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW DEFINING TOURISM According to the Advance Release of the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) World Tourism Barometer, international tourism showed a strong recovery of almost 7% to 935 million in 2010, from the 4% decline during the global economic crisis in 2009. Through the decades, tourism is now known as one of the largest industry in the world, experiencing dynamic improvements and intense diversification, leading it to become one of the worlds fastest growing economic sector (e.g.: Youell, 1998; World Tourism Organization (UNWTO, 2011)). Therefore, prior to assessing the impacts of heritage tourism on archaeological sites in Egypt, it is first essential to define and understand the term tourism. Even in early researches, the term tourism had yielded, as many definitions as there were many studies of phenomenon (Cohen, 1974, cited in Wall and Mathieson, 2006). Guyer-Feuler who concentrated on the economical and statistical aspects of tourism, conceived the first definition of tourism in 1905, where it defined tourism as: A phenomenon unique to modern time which is dependent on the peoples increasing need for a change and relaxing, the wish of recognizing the beauties of nature and art and the belief that nature gives happiness to human beings and which helps nations and communities approaching to each other thanks to the developments in commerce and industry and the communication and transportation tools becoming excellent. (Bahar, 2005: 2, as cited in Esen and Uyar, 2010) The origin of the term tourism goes back to the 17th century where the root word tour is derived from the Hebrew word torah which means learning and examining. People who were sent on a voyage to explore distant areas to learn the social activities of the population living in those places are known by the Hebrews as tourist and the behaviour as touring. (Bahar, 2005) Some other few pioneers who attempted to define tourism were Professor Hunzikar and Krapf (1941, cited in Holloway, 1994:1) of Berne University who states that it is: The sum of phenomena and relationships arising from the travel and stay of non-resident, in so far as they do not lead to permanent residence and are not connected to any earning activity. Holloway (1994) then continues that tourism, besides being associated as a form of recreation or leisure; it might be where individuals or a group of individuals travel away from home. However, Holloway (1994) also questioned the specificity of the statement on whether tourism is defined by its purpose or the distance travelled. Indeed, it is a common perception and a popular understanding amongst people that the central aspects of tourism evolves around holidays, leisure and tours, engaging in different kinds of activities to have a good time and as long as being in a foreign land, it is considered to be tourism regardless of the distance travelled. However, tourism is more than just a cursory explanation of leisure, recreation and being in a foreign land. In 1993, after much reviews, researches and further analysis on existing works of tourism definitions, the UNWTO (1993, cited in Youell, 1998:9), with co-operations from many international organizations, finally announced the officially accepted definition as: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the activities of persons travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes. Therefore with the multitude of tourism definitions given by researchers and studies, which of these, can academics, organizations and professionals use as an accurate guideline in the tourism industry? In spite of the existence of many variations of tourism definitions and the popularity of tourism studies in recent decades, it has been discussed and acknowledged by academic researchers, organizations and industry professionals that there has been no specific means in defining the principal concept of the term tourism due to its large complex nature of subject, involving diverse combinations of disciplines and industry sectors (e.g.: Morley, 1990; Youell, 1998; Goeldner, Ritchie and McIntosh, 2000; Dredge and Jenkins, 2007). Moreover, regardless of the complications of specifying definitions for tourism, tourism is nothing without the tourists. The main factor that drives tourism is the tourists who are travelling and therefore any effort to understand tourism as a concept has to first understand the motivations behind the tourists decision to travel. Also, the definition of tourism is dependent on an individuals perspectives and perception of tourism and also how it will fit into a particular purpose or situation (Dredge and Jenkins, 2007). In addition, the changes of the different definitions since the early 1900s till the present day demonstrates that tourism can no longer be associated to merely economics and geography (Arlt, 2010). As time passes with the continuous growth of the industry, researches into the concepts of tourism will persist to expand, eventually resulting in the creation of more definitions of tourism. IMPACTS OF TOURISM Tourism is an integration of close interactions involving the dynamic relationships of different variables or elements in the tourism travel process and thus, it can never be a standalone unit. Hence, any changes or effects to a variable will create a ripple effect within the whole tourism structure. With this, contributions made by the growth of the tourism industry will therefore lead to an increased economic activity within the country. Countries are increasingly becoming dependent on tourism, as it is one of the most rational and sustainable development choices that have the capability of creating employment to the communities and also acting as a main provision of foreign earnings to the economy. (UNWTO, 2010 Tourism and the Millennium Development Goals) While it is often the economic impacts of tourism that businesses and public organizations that are usually interested in (Stynes, 1999), the late twentieth century saw the emergence of environmental and socio-cultural impacts of tourism being controversial and critical issues discussed in tourism study (Youell, 1998). As the main objective of this paper aims to concentrate on the impacts of heritage tourism on the archaeological sites in Egypt, this section will therefore provide an overview of the positive and negative influences that tourism, in general, have on the economic, environment and socio-culture around the world. Economic Impacts It is predicted that by 2020, revenues earned from the tourism industry will be $1.5 trillion (Kumar and Prasad, n.d). Tourism being declared as one of the worlds largest industry is similar to any other businesses and industries; affecting the economy by generating income for the countrys economy, stimulating job opportunities for the people from the international level down to the local levels. Increasing competiveness amongst countries has also pushed the business capacity of the tourism industry to the level of, or, sometimes even exceeding trade commodities such as oil and food exports (UNWTO, 2011). Tourism being a major player in the service sector is naturally dependent on labor therefore stimulating a great deal of employment opportunities both in developed and developing countries. The fact that tourism is an intergration of many various individual elements in a tourism travel process, the economic impacts from tourism will therefore affect industries in the construction sector, agriculture sector, commercial services sector such as retail and customer services and also the health and finance sector (e.g.: Wall and Mathieson, 2006; ÃÆ'-nder and Durgu, 2007). Tourist expenditures contributing to the balance of payments through foreign exchange earnings, and revenue generated from tourism developments can represent a crucial source of income for a nations economy (Balaguer Cantavella-Jorda, 2002, cited in Seetanah, 2010). However on a negative note, seasonal tourism also known as induced employment, being influenced by the increase in the demand and supply of tourism causes the increase of low-paying jobs and often creating unemployment during off-peak seasons (Kreag, 2001). Peak periods of tourism can benefit the economy of a country, however on the expense of the locals, who might have to pay for the higher prices of goods and services in the community, thus increasing their cost of living. However, contributions of tourism to a countrys economic benefits is relative to factors such as the availability of facilities and resources, the countrys social and political stability, the host communities behavior towards tourist and the amount of investment injected by the government into tourism projects and development (Youell, 1998). Environmental Impacts The relationship between tourism and the physical environment, natural or man-made, is firmly interlinked and complicated. Controversial debates of tourism and the environment have been going on in determining whether they are friends or foes. The physical environment is an important aspect of tourism; it ensures the sustainability of attracting tourism in the long run. In fact, it is impossible to define the different types of tourism without the inclusion of the environment (Safakli, n.d). A tourists decision to travel and the duration of stay depends on the physical environment of the destination. According to Olali (2000), the estimation given by academics states that in the next 100 years, the environment will be the only option that will determine the demand of tourism. The environmental impacts of tourism can be categorised into two categories which are postive and negative impacts, and finding a balanced relationship with the environment is uncommon, if not, there is hardly a balanced relationship (Holden, 2000). The negative impacts of tourism on the environment caused by the increased in tourist visitations are visible through the changes, damages and depletion of natural resources, causing the destruction of wildlife habitat, improper waste disposal, air and water pollutions, and also erosion of the natural landscape such as the mountains and historical sites (e.g.: Youell, 1998; Holden, 2000; United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 2001; Wall and Mathieson, 2006). The lack of facilities and space to accommodate the increase in tourist visitations results in the overcrowding and the over usage of an environment, therefore also increasing improper waste disposal, loss of significant attractions and unethical behaviors due to the lack of supervision over the large number of visitors. The detrimental state of the environment will then lose its beauty and attractiveness to these tourists therefore causing a decline in tourist visitations. Despite of the attention on the negative impacts of tourism on the environment, there are still positive impacts of tourism that benefits the environment. Contradictory to the cause of degradation of these natural resources, the motivating factor behind a tourists decision to travel to these places are based on the sentimental attachment they have with the environments (Kreag, 2001). And because these environments are what attracted tourists visits in the first place, preservation efforts are heighened to keep them well managed, and protected from further deterioration. The positive environmental impacts of tourism are sometimes associated to the economic value of tourism earned revenue (Holden, 2000). The increase of tourism travel to a destination also increases the tourism funds flowing into the countrys economy. This additional funds allows governments to use the added revenue from its tourist industry to implement measures into proper management and invest in the restoration of the environment such as construction of new roads to accommodate overcrowding of vehicles, building and upgrading facilities to attract or accommodate the influx of visitors and installing modern technologies into the conservation and preservation of sensitive areas (e.g.: UNEP, 2001; Kreag, 2001). And as tourism travel increases, the impacts on the environment are also increasing. Therefore, it is of utmost importance for government agencies and tourism organizations to focus on the preservation and conservation of the environment. When the environment is restored to its original state or even better, the flow of visitors into the destination will resume once again. However if there is a lack of proper management or close facilitation of the situation, the environment will eventually return back to its damaged state. The attempt to balance the positive and negative aspects of the impacts of tourism on the environment tends go round a vicious cycle. This is where the importance of strategic planning intervenes and it is a crucial part of sustainable tourism of a destination. Socio-cultural Impacts The inclusion of social impact studies is an essential criterion for any tourism industry and tourism government agencies planning for a sustainable tourism industry as it provides an insight of the support for tourism development within host communities (e.g.: Nyaupane and Thapa, 2006; Zhang et al., 2006; Tovar and Lockwood, 2008; Deery, Jago and Fredline, 2011). Social cultural impacts on a destinations society such as traditions, identity, lifestyle, values and customs, are the results of the direct and indirect interactions between the host communities, the tourists and the tourism industry. These impacts of tourism development on the local society are identified through the evaluation of residents perceptions and behaviors towards tourism (Tovar and Lockwood, 2008). Regardless of the magnitude of the fluctuations of tourism demand, the impact on the host community will not only be dependent on the number of tourist arrivals but the type of tourist (Holloway, 2002). Of which, the se impacts can either have a positive or negative influence on the society. Firstly, improvements of infrastructures resulted from tourism development such as clean water and stable telecommunications, improved transportation and banking services, and new business investments are positive impacts that contributes in enriching the local communities way of life (http://www.gawler.sa.gov.au). Tourism also helps in boosting the quality of life in the society and provides opportunities for locals to experience cultural exchange and interactions with the rest of the world. The accumulative experience gained from engaging in the cultural exchange with visitors enhances the host communities ability to interact comfortably and confidently with future potential visitors in the long run. Having an influx of tourist arrivals to a destination can also encourage the preservation and conservation of cultural values and traditional customs which are in danger of losing its identity. The increased interest of tourists into the culture and traditions of the local society also helps to push the demand for historical and cultural education and local tourism agencies will be pressured to step up on preservation and conservation of possible endangered ancient sites, monuments or artifacts (Kreag, 2001). Despite of the positive and inspiring socio-cultural impacts of tourism on a host environment, the negative impacts of tourism, on the other hand, can equally cause a prominent damage on a culture. Ironically, instead of riviving a lost culture, the continuous development of tourism driven by the influx of tourist demand can very well cause the same cultural identity and value of the host communities to change and this issue has raised concerns amongst tourism organizations. This normally happens when local communites conformed to the needs, wants and desires of tourists expectations in the bid to respond to their growing demands. As such, this conformity leads to the commercialization of local culture into a commodity and the modification of traditional art and craft forms, resulting it to become reconstructed ethnicity which might end up causing the eradication of cultural goods (www.coastlearn.org). One of the negative aspect on the social status of a culture is the social differences between the host and the tourists. According to Mathieson and Wall (2006), more often than not, social tensions between host communities and tourists happens in developing countries whereby the tourist market are from a country with higher foreign currency rate than the host communities and thus unintentionally highlighting the disparity of wealth. They also mentioned that since the nature of tourism involves the movement of people around geographical locations, social conflicts occur as a result of differences in cultures, values, lifestyles and languages. TOURISM AND HERITAGE Defining Heritage in Tourism With the growth of the tourism sector, the types of tourist are also diversified and the collection of individual experiences of these tourists influence the different types of tourism offered today, thus the formation of the different types of tourism (Timothy and Boyd, 2003). Heritage tourism has been one of the oldest forms of tourism offered since the early ages, however in recent years, it has grown to popularity in the industry. It is the inheritance of the unrepeatable products of life from the past that is worth preserving for the benefits admiration and education of the current and future generations (e.g.: Nurick, 2000; Timothy and Boyd, 2003; Sethi, 2005; National Trust, 2011). Heritage could be anything that is tangible or intangible left behind by the past such as archaeological or historical sites that have been preserved, natural landscapes which are of a destinations significance, artifacts and documents, culture, values and sometimes even the people of the past such as the indigenous people. However over the years, heritage has been modified and commercialized to suit tourists demand and expectations, allowing it to be more accessible, attractive, educational and entertaining (Fyall and Rakic, 2006). Heritage itself as a concept has entered on to a global stage and penetrated into the local, regional and national arena (Burnett, 2001). The World Tourism Organization (WTO) states that heritage and culture have become an important element in almost 40 per cent of all international trips taken and despite of recession, heritage tourism still continued to grow (Hanna, 1993, cited in Timothy and Boyd, 2003). The different types of heritage attractions offered now are varse and wide, examples includes natural history attractions, religious attractions, sociocultural attractions, art galaries, ancestral dwellings, and genocide monuments. Fyall and Rakic (2006) adds that the demand for heritage based tourism has been on the rise because Lowenthal (1979) states that peoples sentimental reminensce of the past is deeply affected by the parallel ongoing eradication of historical antiquities while on the other hand, Hannabuss (1999) also claims that heritage enthusiasts are immersing themsevles in heritage for the purpose of finding a rational explanation for their post-modern lives. With the controversial issues happening in everyday life, it is no wonder that heritage behaves as a touchstone in reminding people the primary essence of life. Hence, an attempt to understand the demand of heritage tourism could best be determined by initiating a study on visitor psychographic characteristics as these visitors are the primary factors pushing the demand for heritage tourism. Determining the visitor demographics can also aid in better planning and management of visitor capacity control in relation to preservation and conservati on of the heritage sites which will be discussed further in the next section. According to Hall and McArthur (1993a, as cited in Timothy and Boyd, 2003), the significance of heritage can be categorised into four different areas in relation to its economic, social, political and scientific significance. The economic significance of heritage refers to the value of the heritage to visitors, in terms of the amount of revenue earned from visitations to the sites. The social significance refers to the personal identification that individuals have to associate themselves with their heritage. In terms of its political significance, the representations of heritage can behave as an aid in managing political issues due to its political nature behind its existance. Finally, heritage educates visitors on its history, culture and the population of a destination. It also acts as a benchmark for ecological studies on the environments and ecosystems, therefore presenting itself as a scientific significance to the people (ibid.). Impacts of Tourism on Heritage Through the globalization and increasing competiveness of the tourism industry, governments, tourism organizations and agencies are continuously pushed into the whirlpool of sustainable tourism development. Bramwell and Lane (1993) states that sustainable tourism development can be implemented if the balance of the economic, environmental and social aspects of the development is realised. It is certain that every country in the world will definitely have a heritage background attached to them, however, what makes heritage tourism in a country unique is the exclusiveness of the actual heritage product itself. The characteristics and uniqueness of that particular heritage product dictates the different types of visitors and the demand of heritage tourism in the destination. With tourism, comes impacts. As mentioned in earlier sections, tourism impacts the economy, environment and the socialcultural aspects of a destination. Likewise, heritage tourism being categorised into the four different aspects of significance, will therefore impact the economy, evironment and socialcultural aspects of a destination. An influx of tourist visitations can positively or negatively affect the destination in many aspects. Prosperity of the economy, job creations, improved quality of life are some of the positive impacts whilst seasonal unemployment, social tensions, pollution of the environment are some of the negative impacts. However when it comes to heritage, tourism is known to be impacting the environmental and sociocultural aspect of the destination more often than the economical aspect, unless otherwise, the countrys tourism economy is highly dependent on heritage tourism. Tourism is known to have an intitmate relationship with the matters of heritage conservatio n and preservation; a significant element in deciding the survival of a countrys heritage Hence, the impacts caused by tourism on heritage sites are in ways similar to that of a natural environment (pollution, lost of habitat, lost of attractiveness), however, the results and repercussions are amplified due to the uniqueness of the heritage enviroment that can never have an exact replica elsewhere in the world. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Heritage Sites in Egypt Demand of Tourism in Egypt IMPACTS OF TOURISM ON HERITAGE IN EGYPT Politcal Issues in Egypt CHAPTER THREE: ANALYSIS GROWTH OF TOURISM IN EGYPT Tourism and Heritage in Egypt The term history can be best epitomized by the ancient Egyptian civilization than to any other ancient culture (Grimal, 1994). Egypt is probably the worlds oldest civilization from the  Nile Valley  since the 3,100 BC and is reputable for its extensive collection of historical record on civilization and the immense wealth of knowledge (SIS, 2011). Five thousand years ago, a glimpse start of Egyptss tourism began with the start of cruising (Goeldner, Ritchie and McIntosh, 2000). Queen Hatshepsuts first cruise journey is recorded on the walls of the Temple of Deit El Bahari in Luxor, where it states that the purpose of cruising at that era was for peace and tourism (ibid.). However the genesis of heritage tourism in Egypt could mainly be attributed by the smart and innovative grandeur infrastructure of the Pharaonic burial tombs such as the Sphinx and the other ancient Egyptian pyramids, which saw the first early arrivals of tourists. The start of tourism playing as a core role in the economy of Egypt came with the completion of the Suez Canal in 1869 and after being announced by Khedive (Viceroy) Ismail that Egypt was to be part of Europe (www.thelonelyplanet.com). The Nile, Luxor, the ancient Pyramids of Giza and temples are what defines Egypt as a heritage destination. Egypts ancient civilization is an evidence of the evolution of mankind from the prehistoric days till the present. The rich history of Egypt acts as a connection to the distant past of humanity, which reveals mankinds greatest glories and achievements. Current Status of Egypts Tourism Industry Tourism in Egypt is a huge lucrative business that has flourish and become a major component in the economic development. Millions of tourists are travelling to Egypt each year, for the purpose of appreciating the abundance of the natural and historical phenomenon within the country (www.greenstarhotel.net). In 1995, international vis

Migraines Essay -- essays research papers

Migraine headaches are the result of a disturbance in the neurochemistry of the central nervous system. They are relatively common, affecting three times as many women as men. Migraine sufferers typically report a definite pattern to their headaches, and they can report what stimuli bring them on. Most migraine sufferers experience their first attack before the age of 20. There is no single cause of migraines, but the tendency to get migraines does tend to run in families. When a migraine occurs, it means that something has altered several of the neurotransmitter-sensitive receptors located on the outside surface of the nerve cells (neurons) so that the nervous system is no longer able to constantly maintain the natural balance that the nervous system is intended to maintain. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that nerve cells (neurons) use to communicate messages to each other. Receptors are special areas that receive these chemical messages. The key neurotransmitter in migraine is called serotonin (often referred to in the scientific literature as 5-HT or 5-hydroxytryptophan). If something interferes with the normal functioning (production, release, receptor docking, and/or re-uptake) of serotonin, that disrupts the normal functioning of the nervous system and can lead to various symptoms associated with migraine. The severe pain associated with migraine occurs when the mechanism that normally inhibits and/or mediates pain is disabled. There is no actual tissue damage occu...